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The Dairy Industry: Process, Monitoring, Standards, and Quality

Niamh Burke, Krzysztof A. Zacharski, Marker Southern, Paul Hogan, Michael P. Ryan and Catherine C. Adley

Submitted: February 15th, 2018 Reviewed: July 19th, 2018 Published: November 5th, 2018

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80398

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Abstruse

Sampling and assay occur along the milk processing train: from collection at subcontract level, to intake at the diary plant, the processing steps, and the end products. Milk has a brusk shelf life; however, products such equally milk powders accept allowed a global manufacture to be developed. Quality control tests are vital to support activities for hygiene and nutrient standards to meet regulatory and client demands. Multiples of chemical and microbiological contamination tests are undertaken. Hazard assay testing strategies are necessary, simply some tests may be redundant; it is therefore vital to identify production optimization quality command strategies. The time taken to undergo testing and turnaround time are rarely measured. The dairy manufacture is a traditional manufacture with a low margin commodity. Industry 4.0 vision for dairy manufacturing is to introduce the aspects of operational excellence and implementation of information and communications technologies. The dairy industries' reply to Industry four.0 is represented predominantly by proactive maintenance and optimization of production and logistical chains, such as robotic milking machines and processing and packaging line automation reinforced past sensors for rapid chemical and microbial analysis with improved and real-fourth dimension information management. This chapter reviews the processing trains with suggestions for improved optimization.

Keywords

  • dairy
  • processing
  • hygiene
  • analytical tests
  • automation

1. Introduction

The implementation of strategies to improve and strengthen milk procedure optimization is of vital importance inside the dairy manufacture. The rapid deterioration of milk products forces dairy processors to critically optimize and plan their production schedules. The business model is to look at the work strength, to reduce or eliminate any time or/and resource wastage, unnecessary costs, bottlenecks, and mistakes while attaining the process objective of creating a quality product [i].

The global dairy sector is currently going through modify. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN), dairy price alphabetize shows prices 26% below its tiptop from February 2014 [ii]. The demand for milk products from Mainland china is beginning to slow, trade sanctions on Russian federation and the end of "milk quotas" within the European Spousal relationship (Eu) has acquired a menstruation of excess supply and depression prices [3]. Nevertheless this, the dairy sector is expanding and projected to grow at a rate of 1.8% per year over the next 10 years, to 177 million tons of powdered milk past 2025 [4]. This increase is mainly due to rising urbanization and growing incomes in emerging markets [5]. In the EU, even so, dairy farmers accept used intervention stocks to shield themselves from poorer international prices. In September 2017, for instance, Eu farmers consigned 16,597 tons of skimmed milk pulverization (SMP) to the interventions stock at Euro €one.698 [vi].

In improver, irresolute consumer demand patterns are affecting nutrient production. The "Traditional" value drivers of price, sense of taste, and convenience have been complemented past newer and "Evolving" drivers such as health and wellness, safety, social affect, and experience. Fundamental to all of these drivers is a need for transparency from food companies [five]. Given the ever-irresolute nature of the consumer food value drivers, dairy producers must look to their production processes to innovate with new products and to optimize output without compromising on quality and safe.

The globe'south milk is predominantly cow'southward milk, followed by buffalo milk. The leading producers include, Asia (thirty%), followed by the Eu (28%), North and Key America (eighteen%), South America (ix%), other European countries (ix%), Africa (5%), and Oceania (5%) [vii]. To be named a dairy production, food must be produced from the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, etc. The dairy sector includes food such as liquid milk, milk powders, cheese, butter, and yogurt, as well as water ice cream. Several factors including genetics, and breed of animal, surround, stages of lactation, parity, and diet, together determine the final limerick of milk [8]. Milk and dairy products are pregnant sources of poly peptide, essential minerals (calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorous, sodium, iodine) and several vitamins, (the fatty-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K, and B1, B3, B6, B12). In a Western nutrition, dairy products provide between twoscore and 70% of the recommended daily calcium intake. Cow's milk consists of most 87% water (Tabular array one), and 12–13% total solids. The solids consist of fat ~4% and solids-not-fatty (SNF) ~nine%, such as proteins, lactose, and diverse minerals and vitamins. Milk proteins consist of whey and caseins; caseins take four dissimilar species (αS1, αS2, β, and κ-caseins) which are divide molecules, merely they practice possess similarity in structure and they contain around 80% of total milk poly peptide. The major whey proteins in cow and sheep's milk are β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin; the other proteins are serum albumin and immunoglobulins. Minor proteins include lactoferrin (LF), an atomic number 26 binding poly peptide and βii-Microglobulin—function of the Major Histocompatibility Complex Ii (MHC II), the residue are mostly enzymes including; lactoperoxidase, an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide, lysozyme which breaks down bacterial cell walls and has low activity in moo-cow milk, proteases, protease activators, nucleases, glycosidases, and others. The milk proteins contain the nine essential amino acids required by humans, making it an important human being food. The caseins are easily digested, while the whey proteins are relatively less digestible in the intestine.

Cow's milk % Skim milk powder (SMP) % Whole milk pulverization (WMP) % Acid whey powder (WP) %
Moisture 85.5–89.5 three.0–4.0 2.0–4.5* iii.five–5.0
Fat 2.v–6.0 0.half dozen–1.5 26.0–42.0 i.0–ane.5
Poly peptide 2.9–5.0 34.0–37.00 24.v–27 11.0–14.5
Lactose iii.6–5.5 49.5–52.0 36.0–38.5 63.0–75.0
Minerals (ash) 0.8–0.9 8.2–8.half-dozen 5.v–6.5 8.2–8.8

Tabular array i.

Average composition of milk and milk powders.

The moisture content does not include h2o of crystallization of the lactose, the milk solids-not-fat content includes the h2o of crystallization of the lactose (Source: [11, 12]).


The milk fatty content varies within the aforementioned dairy products and between dissimilar dairy products. Raw farm milk, full-fat milk, semi-skimmed milk, and skimmed milk take their own percentage of fatty. Raw milk usually has a fat content of ~4.iv one thousand of milk fat per 100 g. This can be skimmed to obtain lower fat varieties. Full-fat milk is standardized to iii.5% of fat and semi-skimmed milk contains ~1.5% fat. Skimmed milk and buttermilk are very low in fat and, on average, incorporate 0.1 or 0.2% fat, respectively. The fat content of milk and foam is also known as butterfat, an important factor in determining the price to be paid for milk supplied past farmers in many countries. Milk sold to the consumer is standardized with a range of different fatty content choices. However, international variances in standardization mean that the fat percentage for (semi)-skimmed, whole milk, and buttermilk can differ between countries. Modifications in the composition of milk are allowed, if they are indicated on the packing of the product, and then that it can be easily seen and read, complying with the obligation as regards nutrition labeling, laid downward past the countries regulations. In the case of the European union, regulation No. 1169/2011 applies on the provision of food information to consumers [9], plus providing an indication of origin, is considered of particular interest. The US Public Health Service (USPHS) Milk Ordinance and Code recommends a minimum of 3.25% butterfat in farm milk, every bit the official national standard [x].

Milk is not necessarily a local product and has developed into a global merchandise with the development of milk powders. In particular, whole milk powder (WMP) and skimmed milk pulverisation (SMP) are the near traded agricultural commodities globally, as per centum of production traded, while fresh dairy products, with less than ane% of production traded are the least traded agronomical commodity [4]. The dairy industry, however, has been targeted in the climate change contend every bit information technology has been estimated that fourteen.5% of greenhouse gas emissions come up from livestock with beefiness and milk product the principal culprits [13, 14]. Farthermost changes in climate tin touch the microbiological safety of food. Wet conditions are favorable to pathogen growth and may outcome in increased risk of food contagion, including mycotoxin. Aflatoxin M1 is the near studied mycotoxin in milk and levels exceeding the EU maximum level (0.050 μg/kg) have been establish [xv]. Climate furnishings on animal diseases lead to increased utilize of veterinary medicines resulting in drug resistance and anthropogenic (synthetic) chemicals with the potential for transmission of chemical residues into the food concatenation. The more than frequent and intense rainfall that is predicted could encourage the spread of perchlorate through surface runoff with the potential to enter the nutrient concatenation via cow'south milk [sixteen]. Perchlorate reduces thyroid hormone product in the thyroid gland [17].

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2. Milk processing

The menses diagram for milk processing is presented in Effigy 1. Milk arrives at the milk dairy processing plant over the weighbridge and the weight of milk is automatically recorded. At the same fourth dimension, information from an on-lath computer is downloaded wirelessly to a data capture system, which holds the records of the temperature and volumes of milk collected from each farm. The temperature should exist at 4–6°C. Milk samples using sterile containers are collected automatically from each supplier at source and are delivered to a laboratory technician for detailed analysis. Milk that deviates in limerick, taste, and smell from normal milk receives a lower quality rating. The technician likewise takes a composite sample, from each compartment in the refrigerated truck, which is compartmentalized to reduce sloshing of the milk. The samples from each compartment are tested for acerbity, antibiotics, added water, fat, and protein content. These analytical tests and methods are determined by international standards equally outlined in Tabular array two.

Effigy 1.

Milk processing stages.

Quality tests Acceptable limits Standards Reference number
Acerbity (Titratable) ≤0.18% ISO 6091:2010 [19]
Antibody residues Absent/0.1 g ISO 26844:2006c [twenty]
Freezing point (added h2o) −0.54°C ISO 5764:2009 [21]
Fat 0.eight% ISO 1736:2008 [22]
Protein 34% ISO 8968–1/2:2014 and ISO 14891:2002 [23, 24]
Lactose >4.ii% ISO 22662:2007 [25]

Table 2.

Quality analytical tests for raw milk.

The ISO standards catalog ISO/TC34/SC5 [xviii] lists all milk and milk products standards, while other standard sets include, microbiology of the food chain, microbiological quality of milk, etc. The bacterial quality of the milk is also measured and these specify tests are outlined subsequently.

The titratable acid test measures the acidity of the milk. Both titratable acidity (TA) and pH are measures of acid. TA is a more reliable indicator because relative to pH measurement, it is more sensitive to pocket-size changes in milk acidity, especially important in cheese making. The acidity of milk is of 2 types; natural acidity due to citrates and phosphates nowadays in the milk and dissolved CO2 during the processing of milking. The second is the developed acidity due to lactic acid produced by bacteria using the lactose in the milk as a food, converting it to lactic acid. The acidity of milk measures the total acidity (natural acidity of milk and developed acerbity). The International Standard Method for titratable acid is ISO 6091:2010 [19]. Titratable acidity is a measure of the buffering of milk betwixt pH 6.6 and 8.3 (phenolphthalein endpoint) [26]. The advent of a faint pink colour, which signals the endpoint and the number of ml of NaOH used to achieve the endpoint, is recorded. This value is called the "titer," titratable acidity is reported as percent lactic acid and is dependent on the volume of sample. As this test is dependent on the analyst reading eye measurement of the colour change, information technology is prone to human being error causing wrong and unpredictable recording of results.

The antibody test uses kits known as Charm and Delvo tests. The Amuse examination is fabricated by Charm Science Inc., e.yard., i kit, the Charm Rosa TET–SL (world wide web.charm.com), detects chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, and tetracycline residues in raw milk in the initial assay at or below 100 ppb, which complies with the EU regulation No 2377/ninety [27], ISO 26844:2006 [20], and Codex Alimentarius regulations CAC/MRL ii-2015 [28]. The Delvo test (a rapid kit developed past DSM, nutrient and beverage department; meet, https://www.dsm.com) can exist specific for residues of β-lactam or wide-spectrum antibiotics. Considerable concerns regarding antibiotics in the nutrient concatenation and antibiotic resistance transfer to man has been postulated, merely in nearly cases, at that place is not sufficient evidence to demonstrate this conclusively [29].

Added water can exist measured past changes in the freezing point of milk from its normal values, the current official freezing point limit is −0.525° Horvet or −0.505°C and was designed for whole-herd, majority-tank samples, or candy milk samples. The freezing point of milk is the constant concrete-chemical property of milk, which is determined just by its water-soluble components such as lactose, and salts, which in accordance with the Wigner law are held in milk at an approximately abiding concentration. All the same, the mineral composition of milk depends on lactation, nutritional status of the animal, and ecology and genetic factors [30].

Adulteration of milk with water will cause a measureable rise of the freezing bespeak of milk. The freezing point is as well lowered by acidification of milk, which leads to protein denaturation. The freezing betoken is considered as an accurate and sensitive method, most laboratories utilise a cryoscopy, method that is the ISO reference method ISO 5764:2009 [21].

The average fat content of raw milk is ~4.iv g of milk fat per 100 k; with more than 400 diverse fat acids (FA) being present in milk [31]. The milk fatty acids are derived almost equally from 2 sources, the feed and the microbial activity in the rumen of the moo-cow [32]. A report of Swedish bovine milk found that the milk contained substantial quantities of unsaturated fatty acids with 4–10 carbon bondage (C4:0–C10:0), near 2% each of saturated C18:2 and trans-C18:one, and almost no other long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. The most important fatty acid from a quantitative viewpoint was palmitic acid (C16:0), which accounted for approximately thirty% by weight of the full fatty acids. Myristic acid (C14:0) and stearic acid (C18:0), made upwardly 11 and 12% past weight, respectively [31]. Fatty acid limerick can show rapid and significant variation in response to changes in nutrition. The ISO standard for fat determination is ISO 1736:2008 [22].

The fatty acid make-up of the milk can exist altered by changes in diet [33], but are too affected by a number of factors, including diet composition, nutrient utilization, lactation wheel, breed of cows, with dietary variations changes up to 3% units, been reported [34]. Specific fatty acids produced during microbial fermentation of dietary fats in the rumen of the cows are responsible for depression milk fat. ii–3 1000 of these fatty acids can decrease milk fat by 0.5% or more than [35]. The Gerber method is a historic method still used today to find the fat content of milk in particular in milk powders. Past using specific butyrometers designed especially for the dissimilar dairy products, due east.g., for cream, ice foam, whole milk, or cheese butyrometers, with method modifications [36]. There are many suppliers of such analytical tools, e.1000., Gerber instruments (http://www.gerber-instruments.com) or Brouwland instruments (https://world wide web.brouwland.com). Infrared assay (IR) is a normally used method for the exam of milk and its components such as solid fat, milk proteins, or carbohydrates [37, 38]. An ISO standard 9622:2013 is available for IR applications for milk and milk products [39].

The protein fat and lactose content of milk has a bearing on the toll the farmer achieves for its milk. Liquid milk contains around iii.4% protein. The proteins in milk were described previously. The decision of poly peptide content of milk and milk products underpins the international trade in dairy products. In that location are different analytical approaches for the conclusion of poly peptide quality for nutrition purposes and chemically defined protein. These are divided into three wide categories: (i) conclusion of total nitrogen, (ii) direct protein determination, and (3) indirect poly peptide determination [40]. The Kjeldahl method ISO 8968/1:2014 [23] and Dumas method ISO 14891:2002 [24] are the electric current international standards, and utilise chemical digestion and combustion approaches respectfully. The advantage of these methods is that they have high reliability and accurateness. Using these methods, around 95% of nitrogen in milk is found to be present equally proteins, with the residual as nonprotein nitrogen sources such as urea. Together these tests and values course the ground for testing the quality of milk and milk products.

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3. Dairy processing stages

The raw milk in the milk container truck, having passed the preliminary analytical tests, proceeds to whole milk intake bays and the milk hoses are connected upwardly by the commuter. The milk is pumped into bulk storage tanks chosen milk silos (capacity can exist upwards to 300,000 l, plus). The driver enters the trucks identification number on the pump's control console or uses a key fob (a passive wireless electronic device that usually uses radio frequency ID technology) to start pumping into the whole milk silos. Unloaded milk is cooled automatically to iv–half-dozen°C with a heat plate exchanger (HPE) while pumped into the silo. The offload time and setup time taken to couple and decouple the milk intake hoses are areas where processing monitoring can be implemented. The pumping time tin exist variable, indicating performance specific to each pump and the flow rate represents a reasonable operation indicator. Other significant factors that can influence pumping time include the volume of milk in the receiving silo, the number of bends and valves in each pipeline, and the associated backpressure variations. At milk offload, process optimization can be achieved by ensuring pumps are working finer, efficiently, and planning truck supply due to intelligent time slot management.

3.1. Separation, description, and centrifugation

Different milk processing plants have their own process trains. In many cases, milk must be clarified on reception at the dairy, to remove particles of clay such equally sand, soil, dust, and precipitated poly peptide, which will protect downstream processing equipment. In addition, removal of leaner, spores, and somatic cells from milk tin can be accomplished with centrifugation and microfiltration techniques [41]. Somatic cells such equally leucocytes are removed, which will reduce the presence of Listeria trapped inside the leucocyte [42]. Reduction in the microbial load at this betoken can decrease the burden of biofilms [43], which leads to more efficient piece of work of the HPE [44]. Milk bacterial description also avoids issues during cheese aging, and improves shelf life and organoleptic properties of the dairy products. A clarifier is a blazon of centrifugal separator, merely clarifiers and milk separators serve slightly dissimilar duties. All centrifuges tin act as clarifiers; however, in full general, simply centrifuges with a high hydraulic capacity are used in this mode. The clarifier can function with either cold (below viii°C) or hot milk (50–sixty°C).

The main use for centrifuges in diary processing plants is hot milk separation. The aim is to separate the globular milk fat from the serum, the skim milk. This process is known as skimming. This process is generally combined into the pasteurization line and joined with an in-line fatty standardization organization for both milk and cream. Separation commonly takes place at 122–140°F (l–60°C). The fat content of the foam discharged from the separator can be controlled to a level of between 20 and 70%. The terminology for separation in the dairy industry includes continuous centrifugal separation of solid particles (Clarifier), separation of foam (Separator), or separation of bacteria (Bactofuge). The microbial quality of milk powders is highly significant and information technology is possible at this early stage of processing to remove 99.9% of the spore-forming leaner by either bacto-fugation or microfiltration preceding heat handling.

Standardization of milk is the alteration of fat and solids-not-fat (SNF) levels, i.e., raising or lowering of these levels. This is regularly carried out for the consumer marketplace milk supply and in the production of other milk products including: condensed milk, milk powder, ice foam and cheese, etc. Standardization is typically carried out to create a compatible milk fatty content in the concluding dairy production [45].

3.2. Pasteurization

Pasteurization was originally introduced to control Mycobacterium bovis , which causes tuberculosis (TB), which is no longer problematic as cows are tested for TB annually and removed from herds if they examination positive for the disease [46]. The TB bacillus is a highly heat resistant microorganism; withal, Coxiella burnetii , the cause of Q fever in humans [47], required pasteurization of 161°F (71.seven°C) for fifteen s, and is the electric current official standard for milk pasteurization [48], the standard vat pasteurization is 63°C (145°F) for 30 min. However, heat processing tin can result in the loss of subtle scent and flavors components, loss of vitamins and natural antioxidants, the loss of texture and freshness, and the denaturation of proteins. The US Grade A pasteurization milk ordinance (PMO) is managed past the Departments of Health and Homo Services and Public Wellness, and the Nutrient and Drug Administration and gives the criteria apropos the milk parlor and processing plant design, milking practices, milk handling, sanitation, and standards for the pasteurization of Class A milk products. Regulation of milk processing is controlled on each United states country basis; even so, all dairy products must meet the regulations outlined in the PMO for products that volition be sold exterior of that country [10].

The center for disease control (CDC) in the Usa, reported that unpasteurized milk is 150 times more than likely to cause foodborne illness and results in xiii times more hospitalizations than illnesses involving pasteurized dairy products [49]. The dangerous bacteria include Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli , and Listeria monocytogenes ; information technology is also for this reason milk is pasteurized. Due east coli 0157 emerged in 1982, while multidrug-resistant Salmonella typhimurium DT104 was reported in 1990 [50, 51] with some Due east. coli and Salmonella isolates resistant to vii antibiotics. The Eu Middle for Disease Control and Infection (ECDC) reported Listeriosis cases of 2536 in 2016, of which Fifty. monocytogenes was nigh frequently detected in both soft and semi-soft cheeses prepared from raw milk (2.5%), while 0.seven% of raw milk ( north  = 968) samples tested positive [52]. These pathogens tin can likewise be found in multiple food products including meat [53]. Even so, postpasteurization contamination has been found to be the almost causative factor in microbial outbreaks due to milk products [54, 55].

3.3. Verifying the pasteurization process

The PasLite test is an internationally accepted method used by dairies and food manufacturers to verify pasteurization for many types of dairy products. The PasLite test verifies the abyss of milk pasteurization by detecting alkaline metal phosphatase, a natural enzyme in milk that is destroyed by the estrus and hold fourth dimension of pasteurization. The test takes 3 min and multiple samples can be run simultaneously, yet only one sample tin be read at a fourth dimension [56].

When a dairy sample is mixed with PasLite reagents and incubated, the resulting solution emits light in an amount straight proportional to the phosphatase enzyme nowadays. The Charm nova LUM ATP detection organization is used to mensurate the low-cal emitted and coverts light readings to enzyme units. Phosphatase readings greater than 350 mU/Fifty betoken product pasteurization bug, according to US and EU pasteurization requirements. The PasLite examination detection limit for liquid dairy products is 20 milliunits per liter (mU/L) phosphatase (~0.002% raw milk). This is much lower than the 350 mU/L level (0.1% raw milk) mandated past nigh all public health agencies.

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iv. Milk powders

The development of milk powders has revolutionized the dairy industry and allowed for a highly nutritional foodstuff to be exported safely effectually the earth. Milk contains 85–90% water (Tabular array 1); information technology is reduced by removing the water and tin reduce the milk weight to 12% w/v, allowed for cheaper and easier transport. History tells u.s.a. that in the thirteenth century, Marco Polo reported that soldiers of Kublai Khan carried sun-dried milk on their expeditions [57]. In 2013, the world'due south largest dairy spray dryer was installed by Fonterra Dairy Co-Op in New Zealand that has a chapters to produce 30 tons of milk powder per 60 minutes, converting iv and a half million liters of fresh milk each day [58]. 3 years afterward, in 2016, a "second of its kind," world'south largest spray dryer started product at another Fonterra milk powder establish, which illustrates that, the trend is toward maximized production of dairy powders.

Milk powders can include whole milk powder (WMP), skim milk powder (SMP), fat filled milk pulverization (FFMP), infant formula, and milk protein concentrate, which is 85% pure milk protein. Its uses include in baker, confectionary, ice cream, and in fermented nutrient such every bit yogurt. Many are advertised every bit nutritional supplements and are fortified with vitamins, folic acid, and fe.

iv.1. Evaporation and drying

Milk powder is manufactured by spray-drying precondensed milk. A falling film evaporator is commonly used in the dairy industry to concentrate the milk from ~xiii% full solids (TS) to a target of up to 52%. Evaporation is just the removal of a solvent from a solution or slurry. Milk itself is defined as a colloid with the solvent being the water. Other methods of removing water can include freeze-drying [59]. The constituents of milk can exist seen in Table ane. Every bit some products are sensitive to heat, the design of evaporators with respect to temperature and holding time is vital in order to reach the desired furnishings on the ane hand, merely without causing heat damage and denaturation to the milk proteins. To minimize the thermal impact on the products from the heat applied, evaporation takes place in a vacuum at pressures of 160–320 hPa, equivalent to water boiling temperatures of 55–seventy°C. Energy efficiency is the main driving force in improved design and technologies in evaporation [60, 61]. Inside the evaporator are a parcel of tubes for the exchange of oestrus and these are enclosed in another steel cylinder, in evaporation parlance called a "calandria." The vaporized solvent is cooled to condensate, which is then removed. Information technology can become to storage, be recirculated, recovered for heat transfer, or filtrated but this is secondary to the evaporation process itself. The main unit of an evaporator is called an "effect." Generally, more than one "upshot" is used, to increment efficiency by using the heat from the vapor from the previous "effect" to heat the feed in the adjacent. Steam economy is a term used to quantify how much original steam is used in ratio to vapor steam. If 1 Kg of steam produces 1 Kg of vapor in a single "issue" arrangement, one Kg of steam will produce ~2 Kg of vapor in a ii "issue" system. The specific steam consumption of the onetime is 100%, while it is 50% in the latter case. This cuts downwards the price of generating original steam feed. A subsequent "effect" must accept a lower pressure than the previous "upshot," and a stride-wise vacuum is practical to the whole evaporation procedure to achieve this. There are iii primary elements in evaporation: heat transfer, vapor-liquid separation, and energy efficiency [62].

When milk leaves the evaporator (Figure i), it is passed through the spray dryer through modest nozzles, which brand pocket-sized droplets or atomizing the liquid, the smaller the better. The drying chamber has a temperature of 160–205°C, the aerosol are swirled around (1 50 of concentrate is atomized to 1.2 × 1011 droplets with a diameter of 50 micron with a total surface of 120 10002.). For effective drying, the air should be hot, dry (low humidity) and moving. The powder falls to the bottom where it is collected in a "fluid" bed nether the cone of the drying bedchamber, where fine powder conduct in an analogous manner to a liquid and it can exist conveyed without forming clusters. Fluid beds permit mild second stage drying and cooling of fragile products. Agglomeration changes the bulk density of the production [12].

The bulk density of the pulverization can dictate how the milk powder dissolves in hot beverages including for tea, coffee, and chocolate. The particle size of the milk powders determines its reconstitution properties. Powders consisting of particles of <100 μm are difficult to wet with water and form lumps [63], in the case of full-fat milk pulverization (FFMP), which is hard to wet, it is sprayed with lecithin or oils (e.m., palm) to improve reconstitution characteristics. The standard method for measuring bulk density is ISO 8966:2005 [64].

Milk powders can be classified accordingly to the heat treatment they receive. In that location are v levels of heat classification: ultra-low (<70°C/15 due south) common low (lxx°C/15 south), medium (85–xc°C/20–30 s), high (110–135°C/30 s), and high-rut stable (~135°C/30 s). The whey protein nitrogen index (WPNI) expresses the content of un-denatured whey poly peptide (mg WPNI per gram of powder) and demonstrates the severity of the heat treatment. Depression-oestrus WPNI >six.0 mg, while high-heat WPNI is <one.five mg, values are expected [65]. An alternative heat nomenclature of milk powder is by casein number (CN—total nitrogen precipitated at pH 4.7), this measure was introduced as the protein concentration in milk changes with the seasons and feeding patterns [66]. The CN number is not linked to the overall poly peptide content of the milk. The CN value of high quality raw milk is in the range 80–82, expressed in percentages. The CN values in backlog of 82 betoken that the denaturation of whey poly peptide has taken place. Completely denatured milk has a CN value of 92.

The limerick of and additives allowed in milk powders are regulated by the Codex Alimentarius Commission—Milk and Milk Products [67, 68]. The Codex standard stipulates that only milk and cream may be immune in milk powders; though the protein content can be altered past adding lactose. Milk proteins include casein complexes and whey protein fractions. Casein is the most abundant with whey proteins in lower concentrations. The casein concentration in cow milk is 2.46–2.80/100 g and whey proteins in the range 0.55–0.70/100 g. The composition of milks from various animal species is well reviewed in Barłowska et al. [69].

The wet content of milk powder must be controlled during milk processing, equally information technology is a factor in the long-term quality of the product, and it influences the cost of production. The method for decision of the wet content includes the ISO 5537: 2004 reference method [70] and IDF Conditional Standard 26A:1993 [71] and EU commission Directive method (79/1067) [72]. A examination portion of milk powder is stale at 102 ± 2°C until constant mass is obtained, but this measurement can exist afflicted by the relative humidity of the air in the laboratory where the test is carried out. Rapid methods and newly designed equipment are always being introduced to avoid air humidity interference in the measurement and one new method is by using a microwave crenel perturbation technique [73].

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5. Microbiological quality analyses

Each step along the milk processing train tin can be contaminate by the air [74] and the water [75], used in the milk processing stages. Hygiene command at all stages, including hygienic design of the manufacturing equipment, is critically important.

5.i. Microbial quality analysis at farm level

The microbial quality of milk starts a subcontract level. Milk is sterile at secretion in the udder but is colonized past bacteria before it leaves the udder [76]. The temperature of milk expelled from the udder is approximately 35°C; to foreclose microbial growth, rapid cooling, and storage to 4°C is necessary. The dairy farmer has the responsibility of managing and maintaining a clean and hygienic milking parlor with a expert milking and storage routine. The farmer can detect early signs of mastitis infection by using a somatic cell count (SSC) examination. Low levels of SCC (<200,000/ml) are wanted to guarantee expert extraction of protein from milk. High levels of SCC also reduce other levels of milk elective including lactose. The California Mastitis Test (CMT) offers a quick and easy on-farm test; the test does not provide a specific SCC, but will give a positive result once a cow'southward SCC goes over 400,000 cells/mL. The add-on of the CMT solution to milk samples with a high number of leukocytes/white blood cells causes the solution to become mucous like. This reaction is caused by the release of DNA from somatic cells, which are now higher due to the immune response of the cow to infections. Mastitis is acquired by the microorganism Staphylococcus aureus. CMT test are bachelor commercially from many companies.

The milk tanker driver tin perform a few tests at the subcontract, merely this is not frequently applied. The collector will likewise take a sample of raw milk and label information technology with a bar code identifier, to exist brought dorsum to the dairy processing plant. Blended samples are taken for the detection of inhibitory substances (e.m., antibiotics, antiseptics) to be tested later at the processing plant and if positive the individual suppliers samples are then analyzed.

5.ii. Microbial quality testing at milk intake

At the milk intake signal, the milk is tested earlier acceptance into the processing train. One such historic test described in 1929 [77, 78] is the Resazurin test, which determines the microbiological quality of the milk. The theory of this test is that Resazurin, a bluish dye, is reduced in an oxidation-reduction reaction, equally bacteria grow in the milk they use upwardly oxygen and this tin can reduce the Resazurin dye to a pink color. All that is required is 10 ml of milk, i ml of resazurin solution (0.05%), mix well and incubate at 37°C for two min. The colour changes from blueish to mauve to imperial to pink and lastly colorless and is compared to standardized color disks or measured in an instrument called a Comparator (developed by Lovibond, originally) which is a short path length instrument (upwardly to 40 mm) for visually matching samples with relatively dark colors. A reading of ≥4, which is comparable to an estimate of a total bacterial count of 0.1–ii one thousand thousand cfu/ml, is a satisfactory milk quality outcome.

The milk density is another rapid test to determine adulteration of the milk and an indication for the deviations from the normal milk composition, for instance, if it has been watered downwards or skimmed. In this examination, a dipping lactodensimeter combined with a thermometer is used (Gerber instruments; Brouwland instruments), lactometers/milk hydrometers are calibrated in either grams per milliliter (g/cm3), degrees specific gravity (SG), or Degrees Quevenne. ane° Quevenne = 0.001°SG. Density ranges for standard milk are between i.026 and ane.034 thousand/cm3. The adding of 10% h2o to milk will end up decreasing milk density by ~0.003 g/cm3.

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six. Microorganisms and milk

A broad variety of bacteria grow and survive in milk, including problematic spore-forming bacteria [79] and pathogens such every bit nontyphoid Salmonella , Campylobacter , Listeria monocytogenes, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli are likewise plant [80]. In add-on, Cronobacter sakazakii has been plant in milk powder producing plants and is a particular adventure to infants [81].

The mutual leaner in milk are lactic acid bacteria (LAB), which can produce plenty acid to reduce the pH of milk, and cause the coagulation of proteins, thus fermenting the milk [82]. The density test every bit previously described should be introduced at milk intake, as it tin can determine the degree of LAB growth. LAB can be divided into rods ( Lactobacillus and Carnobacterium ) and cocci (all other genera).

Psychrotrophic microorganisms are besides present upward to 80% in fresh collected milk, they are able to grow quickly below seven°C, and some contain heat-stable enzymes, which cause spoilage, including many Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas fluorescens , Pseudomonas fragi , Pseudomonas putida , Achromobacter , Aeromonas , Alcaligenes , Chromobacterium , Flavobacterium , Serratia , and Enterobacter [83].

Thermoduric bacteria tin survive pasteurization. They do this by forming spores, which can so bear over into the last production. This can crusade quality defects in milk products such every bit decreasing the shelf life of pasteurized milk. They are represented mainly by Gram-positive bacteria, eastward.g., Bacillus and Clostridium spp., and the nonspore-forming genera, e.m., Micrococcus , Streptococcus , and Corynebacterium. Levels of greater than chiliad cfu/ml are ordinarily the result of poor cow hygiene and milking equipment (particularly in the case of ineffective hot wash routines). Potential sources of thermoduric bacteria include silage, faces, fauna bedding, and soil [84]. Thermophilic bacteria grow in milk held at raised temperatures (55°C or higher), including pasteurization, 62.8°C, they include the Bacillus spp. Thermophilic leaner are monitored past standard plate count methods with incubation at 55°C [85]. However, obligate thermophiles, such as Geobacillus stearothermophilus and Anoxybacillus flavithermus tend to grow to high numbers in milk powder manufacturing plants [86]. Although these microorganisms generally are not pathogenic, there is evidence to show that they cause human diseases [87], their growth results in loftier bacterial numbers and their presence can be interpreted as an indicator of poor establish hygiene. Spores of G. stearothermophilus are also able to survive ultra-high-temperature (UHT; 134–145°C for 1–x south) treatment [88]. A contempo study outlined the prevalence of contaminated milk processing samples with spore-forming bacteria, which increased from 23% on farm, to upwardly to 58% post pasteurization stage [89].

The full viable count (TVC), or total bacterial count (TBC), is used to signal the overall level of microorganism in milk; E. coli and coliforms to signal any fecal contamination; and Pseudomonas spp., to indicate any nonfecal contamination. Eu legislation, describing precise hygiene rules for foods from animal origins (amended in 2017) lays downward comprehensive criteria for milk quality [90]. The ruling indicates that TBC in raw milk should be less than 100,000 cfu/ml; notwithstanding, a TBC of less than 15,000 cfu/ml is desired. A standard to aim for is <1000 cfu/ml every bit milk leaves the udder; <3000 cfu/ml as milk leaves the milking motorcar; and <5000 cfu/ml in the bulk tank. Further contamination takes identify during storage and preprocessing activities.

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seven. Industry 4.0 in the dairy industry

New technologies in the dairy industry are slowly integrating both at farm level and in the dairy processing plant. At farm level, the introduction of robotics such as automated milking parlors developed by Lely and introduced in 1992 by Delaval (Sweden). The cows enter the parlor without prompting and some cows are milked 3 times a mean solar day, with increased milk product for the farmer. The tags on the cows allow for integration into the machines which collect vast amounts of information, including number of steps, chewing the curd, etc. Robotic milking machines have a life span of approx. xiii years and and then required farther investment. Determination of when a cow is in rut for efficient reproduction is available with MooCow adult by Dairy Primary (Ireland), together with MooMonitor to guide cows in the parlor. A divide visitor created MooCall, a sensor attached to the cow tail, which can monitor contractions during dogie birth and transport a SMS message to the farmer, the sensor can determine as shut every bit 1 h to delivery [91]. Some of the more recent analytical instruments for milk analysis that has been introduced, just are not yet standard and include: Fourier transform MIR spectroscopy for milk-based quantitative, qualitative phenotypic and genomic assay. Flow CYTOMETRY is a well-established technique for bacteria and somatic cells counting and differentiation [92], and companies making these include: Bentley (https://bentleyinstruments.com/), Foss (https://www.fossanalytics.com/en#) and Delta (http://world wide web.deltainstruments.com/); ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) for milk amyloid; milk amyloidA (MAA) biomarker is an early on detection method for clinical and subclinical mastitis. MAA is the merely astute phase protein produced in response to bacterial infection in the udder and is therefore an immediate and direct indicates of infection [93]. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is used for bacteria identification and differentiation [94, 95]. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry tin can exist used for analysis for metabolomics characterization of milk [96, 97]. Liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization and mass spectroscopy can be used for the detection of peptides and glycopeptides. ICP-MS (Consecration coupled plasma mass spectroscopy) for mineral and trace chemical element assay. Industry 4.0 technologies can be introduced at all stages of the constitute manufacturing systems, including environment monitoring [98].

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8. Conclusion

The milk processing chain demands authentic and quality products from subcontract to plate and for all of its products, e.g., fluid milk, milk powders, etc. Information technology must start with the raw textile at farm level including; dairy herd improvement testing, to payment parameters, and quality control of the raw milk. Optimization is important in the processing of milk in the dairy chain every bit 73 plus tests are carried out including chemic physical and microbiological tests, ready confronting ISO standards, European union, USFDA regulations, and most countries internal regulations. Advances are slowly being made to accept modernistic and optimized methodologies approved. The regulatory bodies are setting new standards from verified inter-laboratory studies, targeting the advancement in instrumentation and for at-line and in-line product assay for improved predictability and control of manufacturing processes. The finished production must exist safe and comply with regulatory requirements.

At a briefing in Glasgow (Semex Dairy Conference, January 2018), it was questioned whether the dairy manufacture could end to exist after approximately 10 years, due to the involvement in vegan alternatives and the increased population who are lactose intolerant [99, 100]. A business organization model to address this alternative has resulted in a moo-cow-free milk production called Perfect Day, an creature-free milk made by using yeast and fermentation techniques to produce a product with equivalent dairy proteins (http://world wide web.perfectdayfoods.com/). Information technology is unlikely that nondairy products will overtake existent-natural production in the brusque term. Milk powders are still a big business and the optimization approach to alter the image from audit and reject to predict and foreclose is developing increased interest for the manufacturing plant of the future [101], and is an approach that cannot be ignored. Regardless of developments, a quality milk product must exist the result. In that location tin can be no food security without food prophylactic.

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Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Irish State through funding from the Technology Centre'southward programme—Grant Number TC/2014/0016.

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Conflict of involvement

In that location is no disharmonize of interest.

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Written By

Niamh Burke, Krzysztof A. Zacharski, Mark Southern, Paul Hogan, Michael P. Ryan and Catherine C. Adley

Submitted: February 15th, 2018 Reviewed: July 19th, 2018 Published: Nov 5th, 2018

© 2018 The Writer(south). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Artistic Eatables Attribution three.0 License, which permits unrestricted apply, distribution, and reproduction in whatsoever medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Source: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63169

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